NOTES ON THE INTERPRETATION OF STATUTES
1. INTRODUCTION:
The traditional rules of statutory interpretation have been changed drastically by the new constitutional dispensation i.e.

Factors which have influenced the shift in the mode of statutory interpretation are: -
1.	Supremacy of the Constitution
2.	Human Rights as considered in the Bill of Rights provision
3.	Constitutionalism & fundamental values.
Clauses in the supreme constitution that influence interpretation are 
The Supremacy Clause
The Application Clause and
The Interpretation Clause
DEFINITION:
Interpretation of statutes deals with the body of rules and principles used to construct the correct meaning of legislative provisions to be applied in practical situations.
Rules of interpretation overlap and cannot be compartmentalized.
Reasons why interpretation cannot be a rule like activity:
1. Circumstances and sets of facts will differ from case to case as well as the context of legislation
2. Interpretation has no clear, predictable pattern of application since the courts are not of one mind when applying the rules
3. All interpreters have particular personal attributes which influence their understanding of legislation.
These attributes are as a result of the interpreter’s history, background, experiences and prejudices
4. Since the spirit & purport of the bill of rights must be promoted during the interpretation of all legislation, the interpreters must of necessity involve value judgments.

Technical aspects of the structure and language of legislation must be applied together with substantive aspects of the constitutional values and fundamental rights.
The interpreter has to keep other interrelated issues in mind apart from difficulties of language and meaning.
Read, understand and apply the provision within the framework of the supreme constitution and the bill of rights.
The statutory interpretation under the old constitution was an unsystematic application of rules and principles.
The old system was saddled with maxims and canons of interpretation all unnecessary and unacceptable!
In the new constitutional dispensation, value judgments have to be made in interpretation of statutes, since the courts must consider the spirit and purport of the fundamental rights while making statutory interpretation as prescribed by the interpretation clause of the supreme constitution.

The provisions in the constitution which transformed statutory interpretation are 6:
s1 (Foundational provision)
s2 (Supremacy clause)
s8 (Application clause)
s39 (Interpretation clause)
s7 (Obligation clause)
s36 (Limitation clause)
The 3 phase interpretation process as described by BOTHA is merely a guide for students
Initial phase – Research phase – Concretization phase

2. WHAT IS LEGISLATION?
Definition: 
Legislation is written law enacted by an elected body authorized to do so by the constitution.
Law in terms of section 2 of the Interpretation Act 33 of 1957 means any law, proclamation, and ordinance, Act of parliament or other enactment having the force of the law.
In this case law does not include the common law.
Categorization of legislation
1 chronological 				
Broad categorization
2 hierarchical

Chronological categories
Classification of existing legislation to their historical origins
1.	Legislation before 1806
Old dutch placaaten are viewed as common law and no procedure needed for their demise. They are abrogated by disuse
2.	Old order legislation
All legislation enacted before the 1996 constitution took effect.
•	Pre-union legislation (1806 -1910)
- British annexation of cape in 1806 
- Creation of the union 1910.
•	Legislation between the unions and democratic era (1910 – 1994)
Includes: 
- 	 Acts of parliament
-	Legislation of homelands
-	Provincial ordinances
-	Local authority by laws AND 
-	Other delegated legislation

3.  Legislation in new constitutional order since 1994
All legislation enacted after the start of constitutional democracy in 1994.
Include   e.g. 
-	Interim constitution (now repealed)
Hierarchical categories
This classifies the legislation as per status.
Before 1994 – constitution was not above other laws (not supreme)
 Therefore classification was fairly simple
1.	Original legislation
E.g. Acts of parliament
2.	Subordinate legislation
e.g.  Regulations and Proclamations.
Post 1994 – Supreme Constitution
1.	The constitution – supreme law
2.	Original legislation
E.g. 	- Acts of parliament
- New provincial Acts (1994)
- Provincial ordinance (1961 – 1986)
- Legislation of former homeland,
- Legislation of former TBVC states
- New municipal legislation
3.	Delegated legislation
-	Existing proclamations and regulations (1968 – 1994)
-	New provincial proclamations and regulations (19940
-	Other proclamations and regulations
((The constitution or an Act of Parliament or a Province may confer delegated legislative powers to certain persons or bodies))
NB/
Empowering legislation may not issue delegated legislation unless specifically authorized to do so.
Delegated legislation may not be in conflict with empowering legislation
Delegated legislation cannot influence the meaning of enabling legislation.
Law of general application as referred to in the limitation clause includes all legislation (original and delegated) + common law & indigenous law.
What is not legislation?
Legislation is written law enacted by a person or body with authority to do so.
Legislation must be published in the official gazette
However, not all that is published in the gazette is law e.g.
 - Policy documents
- Green papers
- White papers
- Internal departmental memoranda
- Departmental memos and directives – administrative, quasi-legislation according to Baxter

Structure Of Legislation:
State law advisers and legislative drafters use drafting rules to draft laws in a particular format
Long title
Is a short summary of the subject matter of the Act.
Preamble
Usually appears after the long title as integral part of legislations.
It states the circumstances and background of and reasons for the legislation use of preamble restricted to legislation of national import or constitution.
Enacting provision
Acknowledges authority of the body that is enacting the legislation
Definitions
An internal dictionary for specific legislation, defining some of the terms appearing in the Act.
Purpose and interpretation
Clause frequently included and explains the purpose of Act and how it should be interpreted.
Repeal/ Amendment of legislation
Usually done by means of an amending Act
When new Act is passed, other related Acts may need to be repealed or amended and therefore the new Act usually takes care of this via a schedule at end of the Act.
Short title and commencement 
Short title is the title of the Act usually in the last section of the Act.
If commencement date not included Act comes into operation on date of gazettement
If contemplated date of commencement is in future the short title will state so – to be fixed by the president by proclamation in the Gazette
Schedules
Used to deal with technical detail e.g. when Acts are repealed or amended.
Numbering in legislation
Section I
Subsection (1)
Paragraph (a)
Subparagraph (i)
Item (aa)
Sub item (AA)
SECTION 1(1) (a) (i) (aa) (AA)
If additional section through amendment is added between s66 & s67 it is numbered as s66A

Relationship between legislation and common law
S2 of the constitution states that the constitution is supreme law of the land and any other law including common law is invalid if inconsistent with the constitution
S39 (2) of the constitution provides that the courts must promote the spirit, purport and object of the bill of rights when developing the common law.
Chaskalson P stated in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of SA, in re: Ex parte application of the President of the RSA 2000 (2) SA 674 (cc) that: 
‘There is only one legal system in force in which the constitution is supreme and that the common law is not a body of law separate and distinct from the constitution. All law including the common law derives its force from the constitution.’

Legislature does not intend to alter the common law more than necessary however express legislation overrides the common law, whereas the constitution overrides both legislation and common law.
Certain common-law rules (presumptions) are used to interpret legislation as long as they are not in conflict with the constitution.
Before 1994, the common law presumptions could have acted as a common law bill of rights however this was not the case as they were often ousted and debased, rebutted or ignored during the era of Parliamentary sovereignty.
In the current constitutional dispensation the values inherent in the common law presumptions as entrenched in the bill of rights can no longer be ignored or rebutted at the whim of legislature by the court.
The presumptions which fall into disuse having been replaced by entrenched fundamental rights will disappear.

3. COMMENCEMENT OF LEGISLATION
Adoption and promulgation of legislation
The process thru which the Act passes before acceptance by the legislature is adoption
When the president or the premier as appropriate has signed the legislation it means it is a legal Act though not yet operational
Promulgation of legislation is achieved by publication in the official gazette; legislation normally becomes operational by promulgation.
Requirement of publication
Acts of Parliament and Provincial Acts must be published to take effect in Government gazette or the Provincial gazette respectively
Municipal by laws may be enforced after publication in gazette of relevant province.
•	Section 80 of 123 of constitution
•	Interpretation Act 13
•	Section 162 of constitution
If Government printer unable to print the Gazette, the president in terms of S16A of interpretation Act may by proclamation prescribe alternative procedure for promulgation of legislation.
Legislation must be published because the law must be made known to whomever it applies.
Commencement date?
It has been held that legislation commences on date of publication irrespective whether it has come to the knowledge of everyone.
It has been suggested that there should be a period e.g. 8days between de facto publication in gazette and the de jure promulgation of legislation.
Concept of the rule of law requires that a person should be able to know the law in order to conform his conduct to the prescript of the law.
See President of RSA v Hugo 1997(6) BCLR 708(CC)

Commencement of legislation
 S13 of Interpretation Act.
1.	Commencements on date of publication; i.e. immediately at the end of the previous day (immediately after midnight)
-	This is practically retrospective since at time of the publication in the gazette it would have been in force for a few hours (assumes publication to be on morning of said day)
2.	Commencement on date specified in legislation;
-	If legislation does not prescribe a date, commencement is on date of publication 
-	If commencement date is fixed, then that is the date of commencement
3.	Commencement on an unspecified date still to be proclaimed
-	Legislation may expressly indicate date of its commencement
-	Interpreters have to be careful on whether the legislation is actually in force or not therefore the date of commencement must be scrutinized.
Presumption that legislation only applies to the future
-	Legislation applies only to the future unless contrary appears expressly or by necessary implication 
-	Aims to prevent unfair results – this is to prevent denial of vested rights
-	Unless retrospective intention is clear legislation applies to the future and not the past.
(The above are statements from case law)
Express retrospective application
Enactments may provide expressly that it has retrospective effect.
Retrospectivity is governed by the constitution through S35 (3) (l) and S35 (3) (n)
Offences may not be created retrospectively
Punishment may not be increased retrospectively
Therefore in light of the above the courts will always test any retrospective legislative provision against the Bill of Rights to ensure they do not violate one’s fundamental rights.

Retrospectivity by necessary implication
If intention of legislature was to create retrospective legislation by necessary implication is determined then the presumption that legislation applies to the future only is rebutted
Retrospective Act does not affect transactions on actions already concluded during repealed Act’s existence
Unconcluded matters are regulated by Interpretation Act Section 12(2)
Any decision that legislation is retrospective by necessary implication is also subject to constitutional scrutiny
Vested rights not affected by retrospective application
If purpose of Act is to grant a benefit, or effect fairness in operation of law then it can be assumed that retrospectivity is allowed
If enactment deals with procedure
The presumption that legislation only applies to the future will not apply if retrospective legislation deals with procedure.
The legislation however must provide that retrospectivity applies expressly
If retrospectivity favours the individual
If retrospective application confers a benefit to the individual then the presumption does not apply, provided no vested right is denied, this is in line with S35 (3) (n) of the constitution.

If retrospectivity does not benefit the individual
If an Act places the individual in a worse position than before then the presumption against retrospectivity will apply.
However the constitutional protection afforded by section 35(3) (n) applies to the benefit of the individual in the new constitutional dispensation.

4. DEMISE AND AMENDMENT OF LEGISLATION
All legislation in force when the constitution took effect remain so unless amended or repealed or declared unconstitutional – (item 2(1) schedule 6 of constitution)
Legislation cannot just disappear it must be repealed or declared invalid by a competent court – unlike common law which becomes abrogated by disuse.
Before 1994 the courts could only invalidate delegated legislation which did not comply with common law rules of administrative law however after 1994 the courts have constitutional leeway to test all legislation.

CHANGES TO LEGISLATION
Amendment to legislation
Legislation may be amended by a competent legislature, i.e. Parliaments amend Acts of parliament Provincial legislatures amend provincial Ordinances & Acts
A general laws amendment Act is used to amend a number of laws at the same time, while A specific legislation is amended by a specific amending legislation.
Modificative interpretation
Sometimes under certain circumstances courts may modify the meaning of legislation.  (This is contrary to the principle of separation of powers however courts have a limited law making role to adjust the legislation to be applicable in practical situations)
i) Reading Down, Reading In and Severance
The courts try to modify legislation to keep it alive and constitutional to avoid leaving a vacuum by simply invalidating it.
A restricted constitutional interpretation will be preferred than declaring the statute invalid this is called READING DOWN.
Stems from the principle that: The courts should try to keep legislation constitutional and in line with common law presumption that the legislation is not futile or meaning less.
READING IN is a remedy used by the courts to change legislation in order to keep it constitutional by reading something into the provision i.e. inserting the assumed missing word, which will render the law constitutional
Principles to be followed before Reading In
1.	Results of severance or reading in must be consistent with the constitution & its values
2.	Result must have only minimal interference with existing legislation
3.	The courts must be precise in defining scope of modification to the meaning of legislation in order to make it compliant
4.	The courts must endeavour to remain within legislative scheme (aim purpose) as much as the constitution allows
5.	Reading in remedy should not be employed where the result would impose unattainable/unsupportable budgetary burden.
SEVERANCE 
It is the opposite of Reading In; the court will rescue the legislation from unconstitutionality by excising out the offending part of the provision to keep the rest valid and constitutional

ii) Modification of legislative meaning during interpretation
Courts may under exceptional circumstances modify the initial meaning of the legislative text to ensure that it reflects the purpose and objectives of the legislation.
INVALIDATION OF LEGISLATION 
Unconstitutional provisions
Section 172 of the constitution provides that the High Court, Supreme Court of Appeal and CC may declare legislation unconstitutional.  Declaration may have immediate effect or may be suspended to give relevant legislature opportunity to correct the defect.
Declaration of unconstitutionality by the High Court and Supreme Court of appeal is subject to confirmation by the CC.  Local government legislation and delegated  legislation may be declared unconstitutional by HC and SCA and need not be confirmed by the CC.
Delegated legislation ceases to exist when the enabling Act is declared unconstitutional unless the court directs otherwise.
Moseneke V Master of High Court 2001 BCLR 103 (CC)

Invalid delegated legislation
Delegated legislation may be invalidated by a court if it does not comply with administrative law requirement, (e.g. vagueness, ultra vires)
(The only possible legislative review before 1994)
Repeal and Substitution
Section 11 of Interpretation Act.
Repealed law remains in force until the repealing provision comes into operation.
S v Koopman 1991 (1) SA 474(NC)
If some provisions of repealed Act are incorporated in new Act it is assumed they are in effect adopted twice and therefore continue in force.
The remaining (unrepealed) provisions of an Act that has been partially repealed remain in force and are interpreted in context including repealed provisions.
Effect of repeal
Section 12 of Interpretation act
S12 (1)
If a provision X is repealed and re-enacted as Y, all references to X shall be construed as references to Y
S12 (2)
This is a typical transitional provision.  All transactions, actions, processes, prosecutions etc which were instituted but not completed must be finalized as if the legislation has not been repealed.  All pending cases when the 1996 constitution took effect ought to be finalized in terms of the repealed interim constitution unless the interests of justice require otherwise.
(Item 17 schedule 6 of constitution)
If enacting Act is repealed, all delegated legislation in terms of repealed Act will cease unless the new Act expressly provides otherwise.
Presumption that legislation does not intend to change the existing law more than is necessary
Legislation should be interpreted in accordance with existing law (legislation, common law, customary law public international law) or changes the law as little as possible.
Common law:
Presumption reflects inherent respect for our common law.
If statute expressly signifies that common law is being altered, the presumption does not arise
Legislation:
Assumes that a later provision does not intend to alter or modify earlier Act therefore attempt shall be made to reconcile them unless the later statute expressly indicates that it alters earlier law or by necessary implication.
If the 2 provisions cannot be reconciled, the later provision prevails.Constitutional influence (S149)
Conflict of later parliamentary and earlier provincial provision later Act prevails but prior stature merely suspended and not repealed until conflict resolved by legislature;

5. HOW LEGISLATION IS INTERPRETED
Survey of the theoretical basis of statutory interpretation 
Theories of interpretation
2 main approaches
1.	The literal text based approach
2.	The purposive text in context approach
3.	Inclusive methodology based on 5 techniques of interpretation.

THE ORTHODOX TEXT BASED (LITERAL) APPROACH
The interpreter concentrates on the literal meaning of the provision
Primary rule:
If the meaning of the word is clear it should be equated with legislatives intention and put into effect.
Golden rule:
The court may deviate from the literal meaning if strict literal interpretation will result in absurdity or if the literal meanings of words are vague or ambiguous.
In this situation the secondary aids to interpretation are employed to ascertain the intention of legislature
Tertiary aids (common – law presumptions) are resorted to by the courts when the secondary aids are insufficient to ascertain the intention of the legislature
Literal approach was popular in legal system influenced by English law
4 factors leading to adoption of this (literal) approach
1.	Misconceptions about the separation of powers doctrine being absolute thereby restriction of courts to interpretation & application of intention of legislature as per text and legislation.
2.	Doctrine of legal positivism – law as it is applied and not as it should be therefore limited the courts from making value judgments.
3.	Legislation – courts not allowed to be creative where legislation is involved therefore limited allowance to change common law.
4.	Maxim that legislature has prescribed everything employed hence assumed that legislation is comprehensive enough to cover everything/situation.
5.	Plain meaning approach introduced in SA legal system through a curious decision by chief justice de Villiers in 1875 (De Villiers v Cape Divisional Council 1875 Buch 50)

IT WAS PREVIOUSLY DECIDED and PRACTICED that Legislation adopted after British take over of the Cape should be interpreted according to English rules of statutory interpretation which favored a purposive approach should prevail and should have been applied in the above case.

Criticism against the text based literal approach to interpretation (5)
1.	Common law presumptions are reduced to a mere last resort
2.	Words are considered to be the primary index to the intention of the legislature – ignores internal and external aids to interpretation.
3.	Literal approach is inherently subjective, depending on individual interpreter’s understanding and prejudices.
4.	Very few legislative texts are so clear and unambiguous that only one interpretation is possible
5.	It leaves little room for judicial law making.
Cases
Public Carriers Association v Toll Road Concessionaires (PTY) 1990(1) SA 925 (A) 934 J. Smallberger JA 
Swanepoel v Johannesburg Council 1994 (3) SA 789(A) 794B

THE PURPOSIVE (TEXT IN - CONTEXT) APPROACH
Legislative function is a purposive activity.
In terms of the purposive approach the purpose or object of the legislature is the prevailing factor in interpretation.
The context of legislation, including social factors, policy direction are taken into account.
Mischief rule which takes into consideration external aids, common law provision defects in law not solved by common law, new remedies provided by legislature and true reason for the remedies is considered the forerunner of contextual approach.
Proponents of purposive approach insist that the contextual basis is considered from the outset and not only in cases where the literal approach fails.  This provides a balance between grammatical as well as overall contextual meaning.
In Jaga v Donges 1950 (4) SA 653 (A) Schreiner JA‘s minority decision provided guidelines for interpretation
1.	Interpretation takes wider context into consideration from the outset.
2.	Contextual factors to be considered irrespective of clarity of text.
3.	Wider context may be of more importance than the text.
4.	If the meaning of the text and context is determined it must be applied regardless of whether interpreter thinks the legislature’s intention was something else.
Jansen JA’s decision in
Mjugu v Johannesburg City Council (1973), is a model of contextual approach (used the whole spectrum of aids to interpretation)
Rabie CJ held that the court had to  examine all contextual factors in ascertaining legislatures intentions irrespective of clarity of text in UCT v Cape Bar Council 1986 (4) SA 90 (A)
Contextualists held the view that the courts have an inherent lawmaking function and they can adapt or modify the initial meaning of text to harmonize it with purpose of legislation.
Modification of meaning must be possible if admissible when scope and purpose of legislature is absolutely clear.
The influence of supreme constitution
i.)	Supremacy clause 
S1(c)
S2 of constitution 
S7 obligation clause 
S8 (1) application clause
S8 (2)
S237
The constitution is supreme and is the standard against which everything must be measured.

ii.)	Interpretation provisions
S39 (2) provides that the courts must promote the spirit, purport and objects of the Bills of Rights
Section 39(2) is a peremptory provision therefore aim and purpose of legislation must be reviewed in light of Bill of Rights.
Text alone no longer sufficient
Therefore external factors to interpretation are considered from the outset.
According to a decided case interpretation of statutes starts with the constitution and not the text.
See Ngcobo J in Bato Star fishing (pty) ltd v Minister of Environmental affairs & Tourism 2004 SA 990(CC)
S233 is another interpretation clause.
The court must prefer an interpretation that is consistent with international law to that interpretation which is inconsistent with international law.
S233 is a peremptory provision too though subject to the supremacy clause. S1(c) and S8 (1)

iii.)	Values underpinning the constitution

Values mentioned in preamble: A society based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights.
Other sources of values other than the constitution:
1. African concept of ubuntu
2. Principles of international human rights 
3. Foreign case law dealing with similar constitutions 
Freedom
Equality
Human dignity
(These 3 are the core values)
Not all courts are guided by the constitution some still use traditional method

PRACTICAL INCLUSIVE METHOD OF INTERPRETATION
5 Practical interrelated techniques suggested for constitutional interpretation have been applied in statutory interpretation
They are complementary and interrelated
1.	Grammatical interpretation
Focuses on the linguistic and grammatical meaning of the words and phrases, sentences and other structural components of the text
2.	Systematic interpretation
Consideration of extra-textual factors and meaning of constitutional provisions in conjunction to broad outlook of the constitution.
3.	Teleological interpretation  
Deals with the aim and purpose of the provision and values embodied in the constitution.
4.    Historical interpretation
Use of both political history and drafting history in interpretation thereof (mischief rule, prior discussion and legislation)
5.     Comparative interpretation
Courts examine and consider international human rights law and decision of foreign courts as mandated by S39 (1).
The inclusive method is not new it merely brings together all techniques necessary for interpretation.
It is a total framework within which the interpretation process should take place.
5 points considered in interpretation as elucidated in Minister of Land Affairs v Slamdien 1999 (4) BCLR
i) General meaning of provision thru analysis of its purpose.
ii) Consider historical origin of provision
iii) Consider context of statute and values which underlie it.
iv) Consider immediate context and interrelated provision 
v) Consider precise wording of provision

6. BASIC PRINCIPLES
Basic principles that come into play during initial phase are:
Supreme constitution and Bill of Rights
Most important to determine and apply purpose of legislation in light of Bill of Rights.
Interpreter to strike a balance between the presumptions after studying the text for initial meaning.
The purpose of legislation:
Constitutional demands:
Statutory interpretation is done by ascertaining the aim, purpose and scope of the provision in light of the Bill of Rights.
Intention:
The legislature does not have a uniform intention since it is very subjective.
Argument against use of intention as a barometer
1.	Legislature composed of large number of persons taking part in legislative process.
2.	Some members of legislature do not agree with the legislation therefore it only reflects intention of majority.
3.	Some members of legislature support the legislation for the sake of party unity though not their will.
4.	Not all members understand the specialized or complex legislation.
5.	Bill in parliament not drafted by parliamentarians themselves – but hired drafters.
6.	Some members of legislative body may be absent when voting on a bill takes place.

-	Therefore intention of legislature is a disguise for literal approach.
-	Intention of legislature broadly implies a purposeful approach.

Meaning of text:
Literal rule no longer applies however the purpose of legislation will still qualify the texts meaning.
(Purpose of legislation viewed against the fundamental rights in the constitution which will qualify the meaning of the text.)
i. Initial meaning must be taken into account right from the outset.
ii. Every word is important though it is not absolute that meaning should be assigned to every word. 
 If superfluous words help ascertain meaning of other words and if it helps to ascertain purpose of the legislation then it is not redundant.
iii. Continuing time frame of legislation. It has been previously decided that definitions in an Act be interpreted flexibly in order to deal with new technologies on a continuous basis, rather narrow interpretation of the provision will force legislature to update the Act periodically.
The legislation is interpreted to promote the spirit & scope of the supreme constitution which is dynamic and capable of a developed interpretation in consonant with the growth and changes in society.
iv. No addition or subtraction
The courts may not supply an omission in legislation at will, however if the purpose of legislation is clear the court as the last link in the legislative process should ensure a just and meaningful conclusion.
Balance between text and content:
Legislation can be construed properly only if text and content are considered together.
All relevant issues should be considered from the outset including context regardless whether text is clear or not.
The courts must maintain a balance between text and context.
Other basic principles
Legislation must be read as a whole:
Statute must be studied in its entirety when interpreting a provision.
Presumption that legislation does not contain futile on nugatory provisions:
The court must to make an interpretation that promotes and gives effect purpose to the provision and not render the provision useless.
The meaning which is consistent with the purpose of legislation should be accepted.
Also applies to delegated legislation.
Meaningless provision is legislation which is unconstitutional.
Legislation should as far as possible be kept alive e.g. by reading in where the restricted interpretation is constitutionally valid.

7. REASEARCH: ASCERTAINING LEGISLATIVE SCHEME (PURPOSE OF LEGISLATION)
Introduction:
Fundamental principle in statutory interpretation is to determine the purpose of the legislation in light of the spirit purpose and objects of the Bill of rights in the constitution.
Wide range of both internal and external aids are used to ascertain the purpose of the legislation.
The interpreter has to do research.
Internal aids comprise the legislation and all its parts.
External aids comprise factors that are outside the text of legislation.
E.g. other legislation, commission reports, dictionaries etc.
Textualist view employs the internal aids and external aids in interpretation only where legislative text is ambiguous and unclear.
Proponents of purposive approach hold view that all internal and external factors are to be considered from outset together with legislative text.
S39(2)of constitution provides that interpretation must take into account the spirit, purport and object of the Bill of Right when interpreting any legislation.
This means the courts have to use all available data (internal and external aids) to ascertain purpose of legislation. Constitution backs and commands a purposive approach to interpretation.
INTERNAL AIDS
The legislative text in other official language:
Statutory bilingualism where the text in the 2nd official language was used to clarify obscurity a method employed by the textualist
Original legislation – In cases of irreconcilable conflict between the various legislative texts the signed version prevailed provided certain conditions are fulfilled:
It is used conclusively only as a last resort to resolve the stalemate.
If provisions of one version is broader the common denomination rule applies - the texts are read together to determine the common provisions applicable.
If no conflict, the versions are read together to complement each other reconciliation of the text must be made with reference to context and purpose of legislation
Even unsigned versions of legislative texts are useful in determining intention of legislature.
Appellate court suggested amendment Act be regarded as part of original statute which prevails incase of irreconcilable conflicts.
Delegated legislation
In case of conflict between delegated legislative texts the courts will give preference to the one which grants benefits to the party concerned.
Criticism
The signed version may be incorrect and the unsigned one maybe the one which reflects the true purpose of the provision.
Considering signed versions means that the aim and purpose of the legislation is ignored.
The text which reflects the spirit, purport and objects of the Bill of Rights should therefore prevail regardless of whether it is a signed version or not.
Preamble
Starting point for the interpreter
contains program of action and declaration of intent.
Solely, it cannot provide final meaning of legislative text
Long title
A short description of subject matter of legislation.
Helps to ascertain purpose.
Importance and relevance depends on the information it contains.

Definition clause
Provides meaning of certain words and phrases used in the legislation.
Deviation from meaning in the definition section only justified if in terms of the context of the legislation it is an incorrect meaning/definition.
Legislative guidelines and interpretation guidelines
Purpose and interpretation clauses are not decisive though they give a more detailed description than the long title.
Headings to chapters and sections
Value attached to headings depend on each individual case.
They can be used to establish purpose of the legislation.
Paragraphing and punctuation
Punctuation can effect meaning of the text therefore needs to be considered during interpretation
If the legislature considers punctuation therefore the interpreter must also do so.
Schedules
Value depends on nature and relationship to rest of legislation.
Section of Act prevails if there’s’ conflict between it and a schedule.
Schedules which expound sections of an Act will have equal force as the said section.
Schedules which expressly state they are not part of the Act are considered as part of the context.

EXTERNAL AIDS
The constitution
This is the most important aids to interpretation, a repository of fundamental values S1,S2, S7,S8,S36,S33,S35(3) S34
Preceding discussions
•	Includes discussions of bills in parliament
•	Debates and reports of committees which are part of the legislative process
•	Reports of commissions of inquiry.
Courts are averse to considering discussions during debate as a basis for interpretation however this stand is softening as consideration for statements during debates has been practiced recently.
(Case v Minister of Safety)
•	Commission reports maybe used to establish purpose of legislation if clear link exists between recommendations of report and provision of the Act.
Personal opinions of committee members are not permissible in consideration of purpose of the legislation.
•	Committee reports maybe used
Standing committees
Ad hoc committees
Portfolio committees
Joint committees
•	Surrounding circumstances
These are the conditions, prevailing before and during the adoption of the legislation.
Mischief rule (Lord Coke – Heydon case 1584) historical, context is used to place the provision in perspective.
4 questions that must be answered to establish meaning of legislation:
1.	What was legal position before adoption of legislation
2.	What mischief (defect) did existing law not address.
3.	What remedy did legislature provide to solve this problem.
4.	What was true reason for the remedy.
Aim is to examine circumstances leading to the measure in question.
Travaux preparatories
Refers to deliberations of drafters of the constitution.
These can be consulted as a secondary source to provide development and adaptability in ever changing circumstances.
Avoid stifling development.
It cannot be a deciding factor.
Contemporania  exposito
Exposition of legislation at time of adoption or during its first application.
Subsecuta observatio
The established use or custom can be a deciding factor when more than one interpretation is possible
Ubuntu
African concept that promotes a humane approach with inherent characteristics of Compassion, Tolerance and Fairness.
It is a value closely tied in with human dignity in the constitution.
Dictionary and linguistic evidence
Dictionary meanings should be a guiding but not deciding factor.
The source of provision
English statute incorporated in SA law should be interpreted in light of the SA common law and the English courts interpretation only acts as a guideline
Explanatory memoranda
Memoranda from drafters of the bill is helpful in determining the purpose

11. CONCRETIZATION: CORRELATION OF TEXT AND PURPOSE
•	What is concretization?
That is correlation of the text and purpose of legislation with facts of the case while bearing in mind the constitutional guidelines.
•	Law making function of the courts 
1. Orthodox view point is that legislative text is bulwark of interpretation, Secondary and tertiary aids can only be resorted to if the words are ambiguous and inconsistent and the courts have no role in usurping a legislative function of remedying any defect in legislation.
2. Purposive viewpoint is that creative reconstruction during interpretation does not amount to usurpation of the legislature’s function.
However it is also argued that the court also has a peripheral and subordinate law making function
It is the courts to ensure that legislative process has a meaningful and just end.
It is submitted that legislation in reality is not interpreted but rather applied by shaping and moulding.
The primary legislative powers of legislature are not exclusive – since courts play a secondary legislative role then the legislature and judiciary are partners in lawmaking process.
The Myth that courts merely interpret law is thus based on false assumptions.
Modification not of the language but the meaning of legislation which is adopted to give effect to purpose.
Factors which support and limit judicial law-making during statutory interpretation.
Restriction on the law making powers of courts:
1. Principle of democracy as envisaged in preamble S1 of constitution.
2. Although courts are guardians of the constitutional values, they are not allowed to usurp the constitutional role of legislature.
3. Principle of separation of powers (S43 of constitution deals with legislative authority)
4. Common law presumption – the legislature does not intend to alter existing law more than necessary.
5. The rule of law principles e.g. principles of legality.
6. Judicial officers are accountable for their actions
a.	Personal responsibility
b.	Formal responsibility – constitutional and legislative
c.	Substantial accountability – decision open to public debate and academic criticism.
7. Penal provisions or restrictive provisions in legislation.
Factors supporting modificative interpretation
Reading down principle – restricted interpretation that is valid and constitutional should be followed.
S39 (2) of constitution – courts must reconcile aim & purpose of legislation with provisions of bill of rights.
Bill of rights applies to all law and binds judiciary as well.
Constitutional supremacy – demise of sovereignty of parliament vests courts with rightful authority.
Common law presumptions that legislature does not intend futile laws.
Independence of judiciary assured by constitution S165(2)

If modification is necessary 2 possibilities exist.
1.	Initial meaning of text reduced restrictive interpretation or
2.	Initial meaning of text is extended extensive interpretation.
3.	Initial meaning of text must be compared with purpose of legislation to ensure that effect is given to the aim of legislation concerned.
Restrictive interpretation
2 forms traditionally
1.	Euisdem generic
2.	Cessante ratione legis , cessa et ipsa lex
-If reason for law ceases the law falls away or ceases.
-In SA disuse of legislation does not abolish it, it has to be repealed
* common law disuse renders the law ineffectual*

In S v Mujee 1981 (3) SA 800(2)
Application of cessante ratione rule X had to pay maintenance for his child in an institution in terms of maintenance order under a maintenance Act.
On discharge of child from institution, X stopped payment of maintenance and was consequently charged for violation of the order.
Court held that reason for application of Act had fallen away.
It is not intention of legislature to keep an order in force if the reason for it has fallen away.
Accused was acquitted.
Eiusdem generis
Requirements before application of Eiusdem generis rule are: -
1.	The specific words must refer to a definite genus or category.
2.	Specific words must not have exhausted the genus.
3.	Immaterial whether general words precede the specific words or not.
4.	The order of words is unimportant
5.	Intention of legislature to such restrictive interpretation must be evident.
6.	Case law – S v Kohler
Extensive Interpretation
Applied in situations where purpose of legislature is broader than the initial textual meaning
There is a distinction between extensive interpretation and modification of language in case law which is confusing and illogical.
	Interpretation by implication:
	Extending textual meaning on premise of reasonable and essential implication evident from the 	legislation.
	These grounds are not easily proven
	-Interpretation ex centraliss (opposites)
	-Inclusio unius est exclusio alterius (expression of one thing means exclusion of the other)
	-If certain action is sanctioned by legislation then all that is necessary to bring about the action is 	authorized by implication.
	-If principal is forbidden or permitted by legislation, it is assumed the accessory thing is also 	forbidden or permitted as the case may be.
	-Implied inherent relation e.g. Authority to issue regulation implies there is also authority to 	withdraw the regulation.
	-If a particular result is prohibited then also means of achieving such results is also prohibited by 	implication.
	Interpretation by Analogy
	Extensive Interpretation in general.

9. THE INTERPRETATION ACT:
Interpretation Act 33 of 1957 has 6 parts.
Part I 		– General provisions
Part II – V 	– Particular provisions applied in the different provinces
Part VI		 – Expressly provides that the state is bound by the Act.
Important elements in Act include: -
1.	Computation of time
2.	Application of the Act (51)
3.	Commencement (5513,16 and 16A)
4.	Repeal (55 11 and 12)
*This Act currently under revision by the law reform commission.
Time factor:
1.	Month means a calendar month (not lunar month).   Calendar month could be interpreted 2 ways 		-Month as it appears on calendar e.g. from 1st to 31st January
		-Calendar month more appropriate
		-As measured eg in prison terms from certain day to corresponding day in the next month 		e.g. 9th January to 9th February.
		-Month more appropriate.
2.	Computation of time
3.	S4 of interpretation Act deals with time but should be read in conjunction with common-law methods of computation of time.
*statutory method (S4 of Interpretation Act) Prescribed number of days exclusive of the first day and inclusive of the last day unless the last day falls on Sunday or Public Holiday in which case it shall be exclusive of both first day and such last Sunday or Public Holiday.

 Common law methods:
1.	Computation civil is (ordinary civil method) first day is included while the last day is excluded.  The last day is regarded as ending at the very moment it begins i.e. midnight of previous day.(Minister van Polisie v De Beers)
2.	Computation naturalis (Natural method).  The exact time is calculated from the hour or minute of the first day to the last hour or minute of last day. (De Momento in momentum).
3.	Computatio extraordinario(extraordinary civil method) both the first and last day of period concerned are included.
      Other common law presumptions
1.	Government bodies not bound by their legislation S v De Bruin 1975   S v Huyser 1968.
-It nevertheless depends on the particular legislation and specific circumstances
S v Reed 1972 (2) SA 34 (BA)
	-In new constitutional order where the constitution is supreme and all law is bound by the 	constitution – It would be illogical to have government organs bound by constitution and yet not 	bound by their own legislation which should be subservient to the constitution.
	-Therefore this presumption does not apply in the new constitutional order
	-Values and principles in the constitution of accountability, openness, freedom, equality and 	dignity all demand that state organs be bound by the rule of law including their own legislation.

2.	Legislation does not oust or restrict the jurisdiction of courts
	-Intention of legislature should demarcate the court’s jurisdiction clearly otherwise it does not 		limit the courts jurisdiction therefore. (Mathope v Soweto Council 1983)
	-Section 34 (Access to court) and section 33(Right to fair trial) of the constitution means 	legislature can longer oust or limit jurisdiction of courts at will with other clauses.

10. PEREMPTORY AND DIRECTORY PROVISIONS
Where legislation prescribes consequences for certain acts or omissions, there is no problem, however difficulties arise where legislation does not stipulate the consequences of failing to comply with prescribed formal requirements.
Where the legislation does not expressly prescribe the consequences, the courts must determine whether the provision is peremptory or directory.
-	A statutory provision that requires exact compliance is peremptory – failure to comply fully renders the action null and void.
-	A statutory provision where substantial compliance is satisfactory is merely directory, non-compliance with this provision will not result in nullity of ensuing acts. Not necessarily!
*The courts generally and interestingly so follow a contextual approach when interpreting peremptory and directory provisions.
*The language of provision is considered in context and all internal and external aids are used to determine the manifest purpose of the legislation.
*Factors involved in making interpretation include principles of justice, fair play, convenience, logic, effectiveness and morality.
*The point is whether the statutory provisions require strict compliance or if substantial compliance is adequate otherwise all the legislative rules are all considered to be peremptory in order to be binding.

Guidelines to determine whether provision is to be considered peremptory or directory 
Semantic Guidelines (Devenish)
1.	Words in imperative or affirmative character indicate it is peremptory e.g. shall, must
2.	Permissive words such as may indicate discretion and are interpreted as being directory unless the purpose of provision indicates otherwise.
3.	Words in negative form indicate a peremptory connotation.
4.	Positive language suggests provision to be merely directory.
5.	If provision is formulated in vague terms, it is an indication that it is directory
Jurisprudential Guidelines(Devenish)
These are based on legal principles formulated and developed by courts and are more influential than semantic guidelines based on examination of consequence.
1.	If provision is couched in positive language with no penal sanction it is considered directory.
2.	If strict compliance to provision would lead to injustice or fraud it is presumed to be directory.
3.	Historical context of the legislation (mischief rule) will in some instances provide indication of whether provision is peremptory or directory.
4.	Adding Penalty to prohibition is strong indication that it is peremptory.
5.	If validity of the Act would defeat purpose of the legislation then it is an indication that conduct should be null and void.
6.	In spite of all these guidelines, the purpose of the legislation is the overriding factor in determining whether strict compliance or substantial compliance would suffice.

PRESUMPTIONS ABOUT SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES
1.	Where legislation protects public revenue e.g. taxes, a presumption against nullity exists
2.	When legislation confers right , privilege or immunity, the requirements are peremptory and compliance is required before conferment of such rights, privileges or immunities
3.	If other provisions in the particular legislation would be rendered meaningless, the requirements are merely directory.
4.	If freedom of individual is at stake the court has to emphasize peremptory nature of requirement.
5.	If a time limit prescribed and a court has no power over such time then it is peremptory.

Some peremptory provisions in the constitution
1.	S2 Supremacy of constitution
2.	S7(2) Application of bill of rights
3.	S39(2) Interpretation clause